frosted physics

Hybrid cars save money

2008-06-14T14:11:00.003+08:00

Here's an article we found in the newspaper on a story of a man who managed to save a lot of money by getting a hybrid car to prepare for the oil prices rising:

Click on the article to view the bigger version

Posted by Xenia and Si Rui!

Pros and Cons of Fuel Cells

2008-06-10T03:45:00.000+08:00

The Pros and Cons of Fuel Cells
Welcome back! As promised, in this entry, we shall cover the pros and cons of the fuel cell technology. In case you haven’t come here for so long (we will be very, very sad if that’s the case!) and have forgotten already, we talked about fuel cells and hybrid cars in our previous entry.

Hybrid cars are a type of green vehicle which can use fuel cells for energy storage. These fuel cells, or specifically, hydrogen fuel cells, are not only pollution-free, they can also have two to three times the efficiency of traditional combustion technologies. Now, back to advantages and disadvantages!

Advantages of fuel cells

i. Environmentally Friendly

• Fuelled by pure “clean” hydrogen, fuel cells produce only pure water as exhaust.

• Even when powered by fossil fuels, they produce far less pollution than conventional technologies. No combustion, so fewer gases are released.
- Almost no sulfur oxides or nitrogen oxides are emitted
- Emissions do not include any particulate matter

• If, in the long run, fuel cells could use hydrogen produced by electrolysis powered by electricity generated from renewable sources, the environmental benefits would be even greater. In that case, the outputs of fuel cells would be electricity, heat, and water vapor (produced when the hydrogen and oxygen combine in the fuel cell)

ii. High Efficiency

• Fuel cells extract more energy from a fuel – they convert chemical energy directly into electricity without the process of combustion, which means an increase in efficiency.

• No moving parts in a fuel cell stack itself so there are no mechanical inefficiencies (compared with the Carnot Efficiency that limits normal engine efficiency).

• Heat produced in a fuel cell stack can often be used rather than wasted in cogeneration situations.

• Examples:
- Combined Heat & Power (CHP) generation
- Combined Heat, Cooling and Power (Tri-generation)
- Distributed Generation (generation of electrical power close to the electrical load)

• Provides much more electricity per unit carbon compared to conventional generators of the same size

• Many of these efficiency benefits are due to the modular nature of fuel cell design.

• Using fuel cells not only helps the environment by renewable energy resources, it also results in higher efficiency. This means that less renewable energy resources are required, compared to using more non-renewable resources.

iii. High power density

• The power density of a generating system defines how much power can be produced per unit volume

• Typical value of fuel cells is usually given in kWh / l, which are high values

• Allows fuel cells to be relatively compact source of electric power, beneficial in applications with space constraints. In a fuel cell system, the fuel cell itself is nearly dwarfed by other components of the system such as the fuel reformer and power inverter.

iv. Unlimited Runtime

• Can produce electricity and heat as long as fuel is available

v. Independence from Traditional infrastructure

• With fuel cell technologies, national grids are no longer the only way to enjoy power and heat on-demand.

• As long as there is enough fuel available, independence from traditional large-scale infrastructure can be achieved

• Environmentally-friendly nature of fuel cells + considerable scalability allows systems to be place in a very wide variety of locations.

Disadvantages of Fuel Cells

i. High cost compared to other energy systems technologies

• Cost per kilowatt of electricity generated by fuel cells would have to fall by 10% for fuel cells to become economically viable (as of April 2003)

• However simple construction, so mass production costs would be very low

ii. Durability

• Certain fuel cell components e.g. cell stack can require costly replacements every few years

A limitation in using hydrogen as a fuel in hydrogen-powered vehicles is the difficulty involved in storing it in a cost-effective and convenient manner. While it is possible to store hydrogen using metals, the resulting products often can be prohibitively expensive and cause environmental problems.

NEXT UP: Conclusion

AWW, our project is coming to an end soon! We hope that you have learnt much from our project and will do your part to help curb global warming! In our next entry, we will bring our project to a conclusion by addressing the main aims of our project
and what we have achieved. Thank you and do come back again for our final update!

This entry was compiled by all of The Frostings

Fuel Cells in Hybrid Cars

2008-06-01T07:11:00.001+08:00

Fuel Cells in Hybrid Cars
Hello and welcome back to FrostedPhysics! Not long ago, you have learnt what fuel cells are and how they work. This time, we will be telling you about hybrid cars and what fuel cells have got to do with them.

Just to recap, fuel cells are essentially batteries that can be refueled. They combine hydrogen and oxygen in a catalytic reaction that produces electricity, water, and heat. And because the only end products are electricity, water, and some heat, the reaction is pollution-free. All fuel cells are “environmentally perfect”. That’s why it can be used as an alternative source of energy that is still environmentally-friendly (:

i. Hybrid Cars

So, what are hybrid cars? Essentially, a hybrid car is an automobile with more than one power source, such as an electric motor and internal combustion engine or an electric motor with battery and fuel cells for energy storage. They are sometimes also called hybrid vehicles. Since a hybrid car goes fully or partly on alternative energy sources than fossil fuel, it is type of green vehicle :D

The normal gasoline car runs on gasoline engines. These cars gives us speed, easy refuel facility and long running between the refills. However, has anyone ever thought about the harm these cars cause to our environment?

The hybrid car gives the answer to these concerns. Hybrid cars have speed, and at the same time, use fuel efficiency and the discharge of less harmful substances to help save our environment. Hybrid cars have the following features:

• Gasoline engine - The hybrid car has a gasoline engine much like the one you will find on most cars. However, the engine on a hybrid is smaller and uses advanced technologies to reduce emissions and increase efficiency.

• Fuel tank - The fuel tank in a hybrid is the energy storage device for the gasoline engine. Gasoline has a much higher energy density than batteries do. For example, it takes about 1,000 pounds of batteries to store as much energy as 1 gallon (7 pounds) of gasoline.

• Electric motor - The electric motor on a hybrid car is very sophisticated. Advanced electronics allow it to act as a motor as well as a generator. For example, when it needs to, it can draw energy from the batteries to accelerate the car. But acting as a generator, it can slow the car down and return energy to the batteries.

• Generator - The generator is similar to an electric motor, but it acts only to produce electrical power.

• Batteries - The batteries in a hybrid car are the energy storage device for the electric motor. Unlike the gasoline in the fuel tank, which can only power the gasoline engine, the electric motor on a hybrid car can put energy into the batteries as well as draw energy from them.

• Transmission - The transmission on a hybrid car performs the same basic function as the transmission on a conventional car.

So, what do hybrid cars have anything to do with fuel cells? As you would have read, hybrid cars have more than one power source for energy storage. These power sources are sometimes hydrogen fuel cells.

Hydrogen fuel cells uses the power of hydrogen, a versatile energy carrier that can we used to power nearly every end-used energy need, to generate energy. Fuel cells convert the chemical energy in hydrogen to electricity, with pure water and potentially useful heat as the only byproducts. Hydrogen fuel cells are not only pollution-free, they can also have two to three times the efficiency of traditional combustion technologies.

NEXT UP: Pros and cons of fuel cells

Now that we know more about fuel cells and hybrid cars, just how well does it play its role as a renewable source of energy, and how efficient is it in helping to save the environment? In our next entry, we will tell you more about the advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells and this technology. Don’t go away!

This entry was compiled by all members of The Frostings

What are Fuel Cells?

2008-05-24T17:55:00.000+08:00

Introduction to Fuel Cells
Hello and welcome back to FrostedPhysics! We have not updated for quite a while but we are sure you will gain much and learn many new facts from our latest installment on Fuel Cells. You will be awed by how much they contribute in the movement to lessen global warming :D

Before we continue, let us have a short recap on what we have learnt so far. Previously, we had touched on what global warming is, its causes, effects and consequences, as well as some ways to minimize global warming. In case you have forgotten, global warming is the enhanced effect of excess greenhouse gases. On that note, we would like to remind you the greenhouse effect is not a bad thing by itself -- it's what allows Earth to stay warm enough for life to survive. And here’s a fun fact!

What would Earth look like if there weren't any greenhouse effect at all? It would probably look a lot like Mars. Mars doesn't have a thick enough atmosphere to reflect enough heat back to the planet, so it gets very cold there. Some scientists have suggested that we could terraform the surface of Mars by sending “factories”; that would spew water vapor and carbon dioxide into the air. If enough material could be generated, the atmosphere might start to thicken enough to retain more heat and allow plants to live on the surface. Once plants spread across Mars, they would start producing oxygen. After a few hundred or thousand years, Mars might actually have an environment that humans could simply walk around in -- all thanks to the greenhouse effect.
Source: http://science.howstuffworks.com/question746.htm

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i. Fuel Cells
You might be wondering why we are looking into fuel cells. Our reply? Energy deregulation is now in full swing across the world and there is a rapid depletion of fossil fuels, which are used for generating energy. Not only that, the burning of too much fossil fuel also contributes to the global warming problem. With the rapid depletion of fossil fuels, how long can this limited resource last humans? It is time for us to explore new energy sources, preferably renewable energy sources that are environmentally-friendly, and put more thought and research into them. Without further ado, let us explore the world of fuel cells.

The fuel cell was discovered in 1839 by Sir William Grove. Fuel cells combine hydrogen and oxygen in a catalytic reaction that produces electricity, water, and heat. The fuel of choice for stationary and vehicle fuel cells is hydrogen.

A fuel cell provides electricity in a manner similar to a battery. Like a battery, a fuel cell produces direct current (DC) power, not alternating current (AC) power. However, the fuel cell can continue to provide energy so long as a fuel is present. A battery, in contrast, has a finite storage of energy and needs to be recharged after some time. Fuel cells are essentially batteries that can be refueled.

ii. How a Fuel Cell Works

First, let us define two basic parts of a fuel cell.
Anode – attracts electrons
Cathode – repels electrons

The electrochemical reactions of a fuel cell begin when hydrogen enters one side of the fuel cell (the anode), where it is separated into an electron and a hydrogen ion.

In the case of one type of fuel cell—a proton-exhange membrane, or PEM—the ions move through a membrane (the cathode) to combine with oxygen on the other side, making water. Meanwhile, since electrons cannot pass through the membrane, they are forced to take an external route, creating an electrical circuit that carries them through the electric motor.

As they pass through the motor, the electrons transfer power from the fuel cell to the motor. The motor, in turn, drives the wheels of the car.

The controlled reaction of hydrogen and oxygen that occurs in a fuel cell is much more efficient than the typical burning (or combustion) process of a standard vehicle engine. Hence, fuel cell vehicles are expected to be two to three times more efficient than conventional cars and light trucks.

Furthermore, the only end products are electricity, water, and some heat; the reaction is pollution-free. All fuel cells are “environmentally perfect”.

NEXT UP: Fuel Cells in Hybrid Cars

Now that you know what fuel cells are and how they work, we will cover how fuel cells are being used in vehicles in our next update. Vehicles are one of the major contributors to the deteriorating situation of global warming. There are about 750 million registered vehicles worldwide that emit roughly 4 billion tons of carbon dioxide each year. Is it possible to minimize this emission? Where do fuel cells come in? How effective or feasible are they? All these, in our following updates. Stay tuned!

This entry was compiled by all members of The Frostings.

External Links

2008-04-16T22:39:00.000+08:00

Hello! Came across a few good and interesting websites you can consider visiting:

1. Instuctables
-This website contains a few 'instructions' on the things you can do to minimize the problem of global warming. Simple, DIY instructions. There is also a discussion held there (last comment posted on 18th Sep 07). You can contribute your views too!

2. About.com
-This web article compiles the Top 10 Things You Can Do to Reduce Global Warming! Visit and start doing your part.

Check them out!
x3 Rui (am I spsed to put my name? please remove if not necessary. oops oops i very blur.)

Ways to Curb GW

2008-03-26T15:17:00.002+08:00

Ways to Curb Global Warming
The concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has reached unprecedented levels in recent years. This has caused great concern about enhanced global warming. Due to the extended negative impacts on the environment, and the resultant economic and social impact, it is important that measures are taken to curb global warming. Various measures have been taken globally to try to reduce the emission of carbon dioxide.

i. International Co-operation

As global warming affects the world, co-operation is needed among the different countries to tackle the problem. One way is through agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol, which sets specific targets for countries to reduce their emission of greenhouse gases by 5 per cent of the 1990 levels between the years 2008 and 2012.

The Kyoto Protocol was negotiated on 11th December 1997, but only came into force on 16th February 2005. To date, 156 countries have signed the agreement. Not all countries have signed due to the effect the agreement might have on their economies. There has also been unhappiness as certain countries are not required to commit themselves to the targets set. Without full co-operation from all countries, little can be achieved to curb global warming.

ii. Using alternative sources of energy

Alternative energies that emit less carbon dioxide than fossil fuels can be used. Such energies are sometimes called “clean energies”. Examples include hydro-electric energy, geothermal energy, solar energy, wind energy, nuclear energy, biogas energy, wave and tidal energy, and ocean thermal energy. Clean energies are better because they do not cause air pollution or lead to global warming.

Another alternative would be using fuel cells (especially in vehicles) instead of fossil fuels. When fuel cells are used, no combustion takes place, hence much less or no pollution is produced compared to the technologies currently being used. With the increasing use of motor vehicles, the use of fuel cells will have an even larger curbing effect on global warming, if it is introduced widely.

iii. Conserving energy

As individuals, we can help reduce the level of carbon dioxide in the air by conserving energy in the following ways:

1. Use appliances which are energy-efficient and switch them off when not in use
2. Use public transport instead of driving
3. Walk or cycle if the destination is only a short distance away
4. Inform people around us about the impact of global warming and what can be done to curb it
5. Participate in and support energy-saving programmes in the community

The participation of even a single person is vital. Global warming affects the entire world and our daily actions can help greatly in reducing global warming. Hence, all of us should try our best to do our own small part.

Liew Beng Teck.
Inspiring Discovery in Geography 2D: Pollution, Global Warming and Ozone Depletion, Pg 30-34.
Singapore, Star Publishing Pte. Ltd., Year 2007

NEXT UP: Fuel Cells
FrostedPhysics.blogspot will be focusing on fuel cells and the role they play in helping to curb global warming in the following entries! The Frostings will be looking especially into fuel cells used in vehicles. What are fuel cells and how do they work? What are the advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells? Are they really able to replace normal engine powered vehicles? We will be answering all these questions in the next few entries so stay tuned for more and come back soon!

This entry was compiled by all members of The Frostings.

Causes and Consequences of GW

2008-03-13T15:12:00.004+08:00

Causes of global warming
A summary of how global warming occurs: It is the result of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, water vapour, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) being released into the atmosphere.

Many greenhouse gases occur naturally. However, with the increase in human activities, the amount of greenhouse gases has risen. The increase is due to the following factors:

i. Increase in agricultural activities

This results in the increase in three different gases in the atmosphere.

In nature, carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants during photosynthesis. When large tracts of forests are cleared for agricultural activities, less carbon dioxide is absorbed by the remaining natural vegetation. At the same time, more carbon dioxide is as trees and fossil fuels are burnt.

Methane is a flammable gas produced by bacteria in wet ground and in the digestive systems of animals. For example, methane is produced when stalks of wet rice plants rot in flooded fields during cultivation, and when cattle and sheep digest their food.

More nitrogen-based fertilizers are also being used to increase crop yield, in an effort to produce more food for the world’s growing population. Nitrous oxide is released when these fertilizers are used, thus worsening the situation.

ii. Increase in motor vehicles

Nitrous oxide is released from vehicle exhausts. Use of motor vehicles has increased, and the amount of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere increases with it.

iii. Increase in the use of products containing CFCs

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are synthetic (man-made) gases composed of chlorine, fluorine and carbon. Although the use of CFCs has been banned, they can still be found in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam packaging and aerosol products in some countries.

Liew Beng Teck.
Inspiring Discovery in Geography 2D: Pollution, Global Warming and Ozone Depletion, Pg 26-27.
Singapore, Star Publishing Pte. Ltd., Year 2007
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Consequences of global warming
Global warming has serious consequences such as climate change and rising sea levels.

i. Climate change

Global warming affects both the weather and the climate. In coastal regions, extreme weather events such as cyclones, storms and floods, are likely to occur frequently. Why? A warmer climate increases the amount of evaporation, resulting in more condensation and rainfall.

Arid and semi-arid areas, on the other hand, may face more frequent and prolonged droughts as a result of intense evaporation. The impact of climate change may include the following:

1. In cooler regions, a warmer climate will boost agricultural productivity. But in hotter regions, it may destroy crops.
2. Widespread epidemics such as malaria and dengue fever, caused by pests like flies and mosquitoes, which are likely to multiply and thrive.
3. Deaths, particularly to the old and very young, may be caused by frequent flooding and heat waves due to global warming.
4. Creatures may become endangered, if they cannot adapt to changes in temperature or the salinity of seawater.

ii. Rising sea levels

Sea levels are likely to rise if global warming continues. This is due to the warmer seawater expanding, as well as melting of ice caps. The impacts of rising sea levels may include the following:

Flood in low-lying areas: Massive waves could wipe out coastal communities and submerge low-lying islands. In fact, rising sea levels have already affected some people living in the Pacific Ocean. (E.g. resettlement of people on the island of Vanuatu in the South Pacific.)
Contamination of fresh waters: Rising sea levels can contaminate rivers and streams, worsening the problem of water constraints.
Reduced food supplies: As arable land in coastal and low-lying areas will be submerged, food supplies might be affected.

Liew Beng Teck.
Inspiring Discovery in Geography 2D: Pollution, Global Warming and Ozone Depletion, Pg 27-29.
Singapore, Star Publishing Pte. Ltd., Year 2007
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UP NEXT: Ways to Curb Global Warming
Now that you know the causes of global warming, stay tuned for what countries across the globe are doing and insights on how you can do your part to minimise this problem! Every effort counts and surely, you do not want to see our dear home, Earth, depleting the way it is!

This entry was compiled by all members of The Frostings.

What Is Global Warming?

2008-02-21T22:09:00.000+08:00

Global Warming
Put simply, global warming is a significant increase in the Earth's climatic temperature over a relatively short period of time – as a result of human activities. Global warming is also said to be the result of enhanced (excessive) greenhouse effect.
First, what is “greenhouse effect”? Let’s take a look:

In the Earth’s atmosphere, there is a layer of gases consisting of carbon dioxide, methane, water vapour, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). These gases are called greenhouse gases as they act like glass panels of a greenhouse, trapping solar energy and keeping Earth warm. This warming effect is known as the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is a natural process that keeps earth’s average temperature at a steady level. This effect prevents Earth from getting too hot or too cold.

Source: www.greenhouse.gov.au/science/faq/question1.html

What would Earth look like if there weren't any greenhouse effect at all? It would probably look a lot like Mars. Mars doesn't have a thick enough atmosphere to reflect enough heat back to the planet, so it gets very cold there. The greenhouse effect is actually a very good thing that is essential for survival!

However, many human activities have caused greenhouse gases in the atmosphere to increase. These activities include deforestation and the burning of fuels. Thus, excessive heat energy is absorbed by the atmosphere; this is the enhanced greenhouse effect. It can cause an increase in the global temperatures. The increase in the average temperature of Earth’s surface is known as global warming.

Source: http://zfacts.com/metaPage/lib/zFacts-global-temperature-1860-2005

Liew Beng Teck.
Inspiring Discovery in Geography 2D: Pollution, Global Warming and Ozone Depletion, Pg 24-25.
Singapore, Star Publishing Pte. Ltd., Year 2007

UP NEXT: Causes and Consequences of Global Warming
What we have covered so far is what global warming really is. For everything that happens, there is always its causes and consequences. The consequences of global warming is not at all pleasant. Look out for our next entry on FrostedPhysics.blogspot!

This entry was compiled by all members of The Frostings.

Under Construction

2008-02-15T21:21:00.000+08:00

Under construction!

Yups! Comment for editions and faster give us the information!

After we get the info, AHEM AT SOME PPL!, I think we should add like direct links :) Instead of just the archives part. Then will be more like a wikitookie where people can browse info based on what they want to read. Mayb insert another table with small links above this Entries table, no borders, then hyperlink. :D like:

Global Warming Hybrid Cars Hydrogen Cars Comparison and Effectiveness Etc.

and DO YOU THINK OUR FONT TOO SMALL? LOL. later Mr. Ang go @_@
adding comments. auto-faved up. disabled right click.
Any html problems, please contact xenia or si rui :) thanks.
<3 frostedphysics.blogspot cuz super pretty :D

Template

2008-02-15T19:24:00.000+08:00

The template is DONE.